John Howard Griffin s Black Like Me - 1647 Words

Prejudice: The Fatal Flaw in Human Nature Over fifty years ago, a Texan named John Howard Griffin embarked on a revolutionary journey—to darken the color of his skin and experience racism in the Deep South firsthand. While considered extremely controversial at the time, the experiences recorded by Griffin in his book, Black like Me, are still discussed today. The book has continued to inform readers about oppressive prejudice in America, and aided them in realizing that bias, while hidden, is still prevalent today. It has inspired a new generation to work towards equality, while warning them of the dangers of racial supremacy. Readers are exposed to the fact that many deny the existence of racism by convincing themselves that the small†¦show more content†¦An example is a study that was done on NBA referees, which found that white referees unintentionally tended to call more fouls on black players, and vice versa (Blake). Griffin experiences this prejudice when offered rides by white men while hitchhiking. He is stunned that they would ask such probing questions about his private life, and he realizes that they would not ask the same questions of a white man for the fear of being rude, but when talking to a black man, they see them as subhuman (Griffin 86). Many would believe it is not a racist act, as the white men are not physically harming them. However, by treating them this way, they are affecting them psychologically by reminding them of their â€Å"inferiority.† Following the Civil Rights Movement, many began to believe that the amount of racist actions had drastically decreased; however, they have merely become more subtle, but just as widespread. Every so often in modern times, a case or event appears in which unfair treatment occurs. In early 2012, an African-American teenage boy named Trayvon Martin was fatally shot by a white man, George Zimmerman, in Florida. Although Martin was unarmed, carrying only snacks, Zimmerman claimed self-defense in court, and was acquitted (Botelho). Uproars were heard around the world, claiming that the justice system was biased. Many began to compare the fate and the court case of Trayvon Martin to that of Emmett Till (Blake). Emmett Till was a

Legal Rules Of Evidence And The Concept Of Privileges,...

The Federal Rules of Evidence and the concept of Privileges, Presumptions and Judicial Notice. Deanna C. Walsh Kaplan University, 2014 April 2014 This paper was prepared for CJ508P-01N: Evidentiary Issues in Criminal Cases: Professor Cloud Miller Abstract: The criminal justice system is a system build of rules and guidelines that provide the citizens of the United States a place to life free and without fear. The rules and guidelines set into place are to provide structure and repercussions for inappropriate behavior that is deemed dangerous to the individual themselves and the public as a whole. Federal and State guidelines are similar in concepts, as well as specific counties, cities and towns. Most rules have exception to†¦show more content†¦Within this answer discuss why privileges exist and argue for or against the end for privileges and societies interest in these rules of evidence. Discuss a minimum of two different privileges within your answer. The criminal justice system would not exist unfortunately without the individuals who refuse to follow the guidelines set forth by Law Enforcement officials as well as government agencies. Publications from the Harvard School of Law state that, â€Å"The evidentiary privileges are the most important set of rules that operate to exclude relevant no prejudicial, and no confusing evidence for reasons completely unrelated to the truth-promoting principle. â€Å" â€Å"Without access to specific facts a criminal prosecution may be totally frustrate.† â€Å"On the other hand, the allowance of the privilege to withhold evidence that is demonstrably relevant in a criminal trial would cut deep into the guarantee of due process of law and gravely impair the basic function of the courts.† (Harvard Law, 2014) The Federal Rules of Evidence outlines specific Rules that are described as privileges. The Federal Rules of Evidence; Rule 501; is known as, â€Å"Privilege in General† which is defined as the common law- as interpreted by United States courts in the light of reason and experience- governs a claim of privilege unless any of the following provides otherwise: †¢ The United States Constitution; †¢ A

Business Ethics Essay Free Essays

string(27) " according to these rules\." 71203 Business Ethics Assignment 1 Drawing on ethical theory to critique a claim. Businesses putting something back into the local community†¦ †¦ Morally obligatory – or not? Utilitarian and Kantian Moral Theory Viewpoints Tanya Lundie 9118692 27 March 2009 Rainbow (2002) describes ethical theories as being â€Å"†¦ the foundations of ethical analysis†¦ † because they are viewpoints from which guidance can be obtained in the interests of determining â€Å"†¦ what counts as acting ethically†¦ † (The Open Polytechnic, 2009, p. 15). We will write a custom essay sample on Business Ethics Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now This essay draws on such ‘foundations’ to critique a claim about what makes an action morally obligatory for businesses. It is presented in four parts, the aim being to clarify my understanding of the positions of two ethical theories in particular; Utilitarianism and Kantian Moral Theory (Kantianism). First, I’ll explain the purpose of ethical theory in ethics[1]; giving consideration to why only one theory can be right. Next, I’ll outline the abovementioned theories. Then, drawing on their promulgations, I’ll critically discuss the claim, highlighting general problems in the process. I’ll then outline and assess a criticism detractors might level at each theory, and I’ll close by clarifying my position on what these theories would make of the claim. The purpose of ethical theory can be explained in terms of its role in the normative approach taken to studying ethics. This requires critically considering the basic moral norms people should adhere to in the interests of acting ethically; how they should value humans (and other beings) in their actions (The Open Poly, 2009); what should they consider in so doing; how should they act as a result; and, most importantly, why? The ultimate aims being, to prescribe conduct; judge actions; underwrite judgements; and, justify moral beliefs. Ethical theories are proposed, criticised, defended, revised, re-proposed and-so-on in on-going pursuit of this aim; becoming reference points on a â€Å"†¦ substantial framework†¦ † (Rainbow, 2002). Collectively, they â€Å"†¦ attempt to offer fundamental justification for judgements about the morality or immorality of actions, and provide a basis for making claims about moral obligations†¦ † (V Scholes, personal communication, 15 March 2009). Individually, they provide definitions, supported by reasoned arguments, laying claim to (and justifying) what is of fundamental importance in terms of what counts as an ethically correct action. They are mutually incompatible (The Open Poly, 2009). You can not logically question the morality/immorality of actions with reference to more than one theory at once because you risk finding conflicting and irreconcilable answers given their diverse, sometimes diametrically opposed claims regards just what is fundamental to account for, in valuing others in actions. Even when more than one theory endorses the same action, the reasoning behind, and justification for, why that action ‘counts’ will not be the same. Which goes some way to explaining ‘why only one theory can be right’. I’ll clarify. If each theory claims to have encapsulated the very essence of what is the most fundamental, ethically, about judging and justifying actions, yet they all express disparate, indeed contradictory notions of exactly what that is, there isn’t need to decide which is right[2], to know that only one possibly can be. After all, what is, the most fundamental is singular, one-off†¦ ull-stop! An analogy. Consider all the religious persuasions in the world; all means to worship God(s); all laying claim to the fundamental means to do so; yet readily distinguished by the very different ways they go about this. Now, depending on, say, life experience, we will identify with/believe in/follow a ‘personal’ prefere nce. Can we say that it is ‘right’ and another is ‘wrong’? No. But what we can say, with certainty, is that only one can be right. The contrasting positions of Kantianism and utilitarianism epitomise the dichotomy referred to above. Both make a monistic claim that one thing, and one thing only, is ‘a good in itself’ (Chryssides Kaler, 1993). The non-consequentialist, deontological[3] approach of the former sees moral importance inhered in the principle (motive) of the action (a good in itself) via our rationality – consequences are immaterial. Whilst the consequentialist, teleological[4] basis for the latter provides that the consequences of the action are determinant of their morality – motives matter only insofar as they are conducive to maximising happiness (a good in itself). I’ll now outline each in turn. John Stuart Mill[5] (1806-1873) proposed what utilitarians appeal to in moral decision-making; the principle of utility; or, the Greatest Happiness Principle which: †¦ holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure†¦ absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. (Mills, as cited in The Open Poly, 2009, p. 7) The general utilitarian view is that happiness is a good in itself. The greatest good is securing maximal happiness/pleasure (good consequences) and minimal suffering/pain (bad consequences) for everybody, by acting morally well. Each person’s happiness counts the same, as Bentham (cited by The Open Poly, 2009, p. 18) points out â€Å"†¦ each to count for one, and none for more than one†¦ † We must assess all possible actions and all persons impacted by such. We then judge actions as right/wrong in terms of their utility[6]/disutility; by considering the likely good and bad consequences, for all affected, equally and impartially. An action is thus morally good if it results (as far as is reasonably foreseeable) in the most good consequences and least bad ones, on balance, for all likely affected, compared with alternative actions. An agent acts morally well by doing the morally good action most likely to secure â€Å"†¦ the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people†¦ † (The Open Poly, 2009, p. 6). A conventional distinction is made between the classic, act approach and a newer version of the theory – rule utilitarianism. The objective of achieving ‘greatest overall good’ is unchanged. But, due to disagreement over how best to achieve this, rule utilitarians apply the Greatest Happiness Principle to set general, morally valid, rules of conduct (the best rules, amongst alternatives, in terms a chieving the greatest good (help others in distress’ ‘do not break promises’) and then judge individual actions right/wrong according to these rules. You read "Business Ethics Essay" in category "Essay examples" Act utilitarians steadfastly apply the Principle to individual actions – with the added option of following suggested rules (or not); which allows for combining the good effects of upholding rules, with the good effects of breaking them, if needed (The Open Poly, 2009). Thus, if a particular situation’s right action requires breaking a rule in order to maximise happiness/minimise harm (lying to save a life for instance) the act utilitarian says ‘so be it’ – it’s morally justified. Kantianism was pioneered by German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1806) whose moral focus centred on the principle behind the action in terms of the individual agent performing it; their ability to reason; to accept the basis of moral obligations must be universal and impartial (The Open Poly, 2009); to act against personal desires and ulterior motives as a result; hence, to possess the right motivation for acting – ‘good will’ (a good in itself). The moral agent has ‘good will’ because they act solely from a motive of obligation (sense of duty) in recognition that â€Å"†¦ ollowing the right action’s principle is morally required in itself †¦ † (The Open Poly, 2009, p. 27). For instance, if a promises is to be kept, it’s because a promise is a promise; kept for its own sake, fullstop. Not because being reliable might have spin-offs! Self-interest cannot be the motive nor even any laudable emotion such loyalty – that may not be immoral, but it is not morally praiseworthy in Kant’s view. How can we judge if an action is done only from a sense of duty? Well, the â€Å"†¦ principle of the action†¦ † must â€Å"†¦ respect rational humanity†¦ † (The Open Poly, 2009, p. 7) by way of accord with the Categorical Imperative of morality[7]; Kant’s universal rule of obligation; designed to guide moral reasoning in determining what moral obligations are, by testing the principles of the actions involved. It’s first formulation tests the rule (maxim) we are following in performing the action, for its universalisability: 1. Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become universal law. (Kant, as cited in The Open Poly, 2009, p. 28) In other words, could all humanity act on this rule, consistently, without it contradicting its own logic? If so, it is morally permissible; if not, it means â€Å"†¦ it’s not okay to make an exception of ourselves by deciding it’s alright just for just us to do it†¦ † (The Open Poly, 2009, p. 29). Kant insists we do ourselves, only that which we could have everybody else do, without it proving irrational. Consider the rule ‘when I make a promise, I may subsequently decide not to keep it’ – if everybody acted on this, all the time, promises would no longer be promises and promise-making would become completely pointless! The second formulation tests how we treat others in our actions: . Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means. (Kant, as cited in The Open Poly, 2009, p. 28) Or, treat people must be as ends in themselves, never as means to an end. That is, we should treat people in ways that reflect their inherent value a nd never use them as tools to achieve some other purpose; because, as The Open Poly (2009, p. 29) emphasise â€Å"†¦ the value of a person is not†¦ dependent on how useful they are to someone else†¦ Indeed, according to Kant, people have intrinsic value above and beyond the merely instrumental value we accord tools that we use for our own ends. Consider the action of befriending a work colleague. You actually detest them, but hope to cadge a free ride to work. You are using this colleague as means to achieve your own end. Thus, Kantianism deems morally good actions those that show respect for rational humanity; by according with the formulations of the Categorical Imperative (as above); and, the morally good agent puts morally good actions into practise; motivated solely by a sense of duty. Now, bearing in mind the theoretical perspectives outlined above, I’ll discuss the ‘claim[8]’that: ‘Businesses[9] have a moral obligation to put something back into the local community, because this will improve their standing in the community which in turn will help their profits. ’ Do they? Milton Friedman[10] may well concur, but, neither a Kantian nor a utilitarian could agree. Basically, the reasoning provided (making the business vehicle look good, thereby helping the bottom line) in support of the action involved (giving back to the local community) is simply incongruent with what either theory would purport to justify an action being morally obligatory – for reasons I will outline in the discussion that follows. From the Kantian perspective, having ‘consequences’ conditionally attached to the suggested action as they are (‘†¦ because this will such-and-such†¦ ’) means businesses would not be following a right action’s principle for its own sake, putting back, solely from a duty motive to ‘give back’. There is no moral significance in the businesses’ ‘desires’ and associated consequences; mention of such is indeed evidence of the absence of goodwill (a good in itself) as well as ulterior motives of self-interest (‘desire’ to improve image/enhance profitability) and, emotion (fear of not being seen to be sufficiently magnanimous to achieve the ‘standing’ desired). Further, is the maxim guiding the action a categorical should? No! It has completely hypothetical basis; if you want such-and-such then you should do so-and-so. The businesses would only be acting in such a way necessary to achieve pre-determined and self-interested ends; and, using the community(s) as means in the process! Let’s consider what the maxim for the action would be; ‘I will share my profits with those that assist my earning them, provided I benefit from certain pre-determined spin-offs as a result’. What would happen if this were acted on by all humanity? ‘Giving’ would become completely conditional on getting something in return – that is self-defeating and contradictory. It undermines its own principle; giving is not taking as well! It could be argued that Kant did not categorically prohibit the use of persons as means to other persons’ ends? Only that they should not be exclusively treated in such a way? After all, the members of the community(s) can exercise their own powers of reason; they do need certain goods and services; if they freely choose to support the businesses, then achieving their own ends becomes part of the businesses’ image/profit goal. That said, are the community(s) really being treated exclusively as means to achieve the businesses’ goals? A Kantian would say yes! They are being manipulated. Their rational autonomy is not being respected; given the usinesses ulterior motives. For such an argument be justified, the businesses would have to have made clear the ‘giving back’ is entirely conditional on certain ‘reciprocation’ in return – would they do this, given the outcomes ‘desired’? No! I admit some support the claim on the grounds that, given the purpose of a business enterprise, self-serving/emotional motivation only makes business sense and is entirely appropriate; and, if the businesses do benefit in the ways described, they will be in a better position to put even more back into their community(s) – good consequences all round! But a Kantian would challenge this on two counts. First, acting from emotion and/or self interest (even if the community(s) are also benefitted by/satisfied with the suggested consequences) might not be immoral, but it is proof there is not the essential duty motive required to make this action morally obligatory. Next, consequences are immaterial; good or bad, they come as they may – after acting on the principle behind the action for its own sake. Yet this claim (‘the putting back should be done because of†¦ ’) purports to justify the suggested action with reference to†¦ consequences! That might make a morally obligatory action from a utilitarian perspective, but not that of a Kantian. A Kantian could only support the claim, were it simply ‘businesses have a moral obligation to put something back into the local community’ fullstop. The motivation for such would be a sense of duty – nothing else; the maxim of the action might be ‘I will share the benefit of my profits with those that assist my earning them’ – it’s universalisable; and, in their ‘giving back’ businesses would be recognising the inherent value in the community(s) by treating them as ends in themselves. An act[11] utilitarian would not argue with the idea of businesses giving back to their local communities, indeed, it is entirely in keeping with the utilitarianism â€Å"†¦ purpose or function†¦ to promote human welfare†¦ † (Beauchamp, Bowie Arnold, 2008, p. 18). Further, the claim does give regard to the usefulness of the action involved by way of some forward-thinking reasoning. But, that forward-thinking is so limited; the reasoning provided is entirely inadequate! Before considering the flawed reasoning, any morally obligatory action of this nature would have to be carefully considered, weighing up all likely good and bad consequences, by the business contemplating doing it, on a case-by-case basis, each time the action were to be performed. Consider, the consequences of particular businesses giving back to their community(s), at any given point in time will vary – by the nature and circumstances of different businesses/communities; and, by nature and circumstance of one business/one community, given change over time. For instance, if a business were to ‘put back’ to such an extent it were rendered insolvent (adopting the utilitarian ethic can be very demanding (Rachels Rachels, 2007)) then, weighing up the consequences, the intense pain inflicted on itself would outweigh it’s community’s relatively mild, collective happiness; or, a business such as a brothel highlighting its existence in a small town community in the way suggested, would surely have only bad consequences – the alternative action would infact engender the greatest overall good. A utilitarian would say the claim is so generalised as to render determining the action involved morally obligatory or otherwise, is impossible! Now to the justification provided, given moral significance for a utilitarian inheres in what the action is for. Is there evidence of consideration of the reasonably foreseeable consequences for all potentially affected? ’ The only consequences alluded to are those for the businesses alone. What about good and bad consequences? A utilitarian would need to be securing maximal happiness and minimal harm, again, for all affected, through any morally obligatory action taken. Is a competitor business going to suffer bad consequences? Some might argue there are only so many dollars and so much community support to go around; if a business benefits as suggested as a result of ‘giving back’ someone else might suffer the opposite consequences. Bankruptcies? Job losses? These sorts of implications need to be considered. What about consideration of the likely consequences of alternative actions? Any right action is so, only because it better secures the greatest good for the greatest many, compared with alternatives. Where is indication of consideration given equal and impartial treatment of all affected by this action? A utilitarian would point out there is in fact evidence of unequal and partial consideration of interests – the claim, as it reads, suggests it is only the greatest good for the businesses that is of moral significance here – what if this works against the greatest overall good for all affected? – after all, that is the ultimate good a utilitarian would be seeking in a right action. A utilitarian would caution, in view of the inadequacy of the suggested consequences, that it is simply not sufficient o simply presume that an action will bring about good (or bad) consequences ‘desired’; the assumption has to be reasonable given the circumstances – and this claim seems to risk presenting a far too optimistic, biased view of likely consequences; but, we don’t know what information is available at the time do we? Perhaps a general rule sh ould be followed here? It would seem to make more sense, given the nature of differing businesses and the difficulties predicting likely consequences with any circumstances. The utility principle seems to have been applied Unless, as a utilitarian would concur, promoting utility in general is unlikely to eventuate in overall unjust outcomes for all concerned, long-term; the risk is in perceiving short-term benefits at the expense of that but that is no defence for this claim – the justification provided is woefully inadequate even in support of generalised, long-term, overall benefits are envisaged. perspective is more overarching view is intended, Too general – case by case Short –term pleasure – personal comm. Action hasn’t got right justification =not accept claim at all. Cosequences for all likely affected, good and bad? Alternatives considered? Seem like very narrow view of consequences involved – wrong ones? Predicting future Too demanding Basically, the claim takes a radically non-utilitarian approach to justifying the action involved. A utilitarian could not accept any part of it. The action alone would be inadequate; utilitarianism requires the ‘†¦ because†¦ such-and-such†¦ ’ the action and the justification provided are equally inadequate in terms of justifying this action morally obligatory; there needs be a far more thorough evaluation of what will happen as a result of doing it; what is the greatest overall that can be achieved? For a utilitarian to support the claim, the putting back would need to be done, say ‘†¦ because†¦ doing so will serve to best satisfy the interests of all involved (compared with not doing so) thereby securing the greatest happiness for the greatest many†¦ † As the claim reads, there simply is no moral obligation from the utilitarian perspective. REASONING. consider actions are not good or bad in themselves, only in what they are good or bad for. Consider the justification provided. Further, â€Å"†¦ actions are not good or bad in themselves†¦ nly in what they are good or bad for†¦ † (Chryssides Kaler, 1993, p. 91) whilst the claim does give regard to some forward thinking reasoning. However, the reasoning provided does not make the action morally obligatory from is all wrong from the utilitarian perspective. Criticisms: Opponents of the utilitarian standpoint might well argue it deems as morally good, actions inflicting suffering on a minority in order to benefit a majority – if they engender more good overall than alternatives (The Open Poly, 2009). This seems inconsiderate of the afflicted minority. Consider: affluent American couple and daughter illegally adopt Nepalese orphan and subject her to childhood of slavery. She sleeps in airless basement; works 14 hours plus 7 days a week; waits on them hand and foot; cleaning, cooking, gardening; no schooling; fed on scraps; treated as less-than-human. She is 25% of the equation; utterly wretched. The other 75% lead lives of indolence and sloth in their palatial home; kept pristine at effectively no cost; and, they derive sadistic pleasure from ill-treating the girl and outsmarting child protection authorities. They are chuffed. Add up the total sum of happiness/misery as a result of enslaving this child and, yes, the ‘arrangement’ could be construed to maximise happiness given all the resources available (the alternative would make 25% a lot happier, but would not offset a marginal decrease in happiness of the 75% majority). The criticism seems valid – this is morally repugnant! But, I would argue it could be misguided; and I have two lines of defence. First, a point which Bentham himself acknowledged (Chryssides Kaler, 1993). Unhappiness in general/pain in particular are far more intensely felt than happiness/pleasure (consider the depths to which suffering slavery/malnutrition/illiteracy would take the child, compared with the relatively mild enjoyment of languor/financial benefit/sadistic pleasure experienced by the family). In acknowledging this, utilitarianism rules out such gross injustice. Intense suffering by a minority will always outweigh happiness the majority derive as a result of that suffering; the balance of disutility over utility would deem the situation morally wrong. Second, a rule utilitarian would reason differently; ask ‘what general rules of conduct tend to promote greatest happiness? ’ then compare hypothetical societies, one in which the rule ‘Don’t subject orphaned children to slavery’ is observed, the other it isn’t; decide people will be happier in the first society; accept the rule against enslaving children; and, by appealing to it, conclude what the American family did to the child is totally abhorrent and morally unacceptable. Chryssides Kaler (1993, p. 99) allude to a â€Å"†¦ non-consequentialist inflexibility†¦ with reference to Kantianism. I would have to agree; all the categoric moral rules that hold without exception, in all circumstances! For instance, Kant (as cited in Rachels Rachels, 2007, p. 123) disallowed all lying; the â€Å"†¦ the obliteration of ones dignity as a human being†¦ † And, as Rachels Rachels (2007, p. 123) note in his defence â€Å"â₠¬ ¦ there is something in this†¦ † for lies to be successful, there needs be a general belief that truth-telling prevails; so, any point in lying requires there not being a universal law permitting it! For instance, consider a situation where telling a lie would save a life; an intending murderer asking for the whereabouts of his/her intended victim for instance. Surely it is not only reasonable, but morally obligatory, to lie, in the interests of preventing a violent end to a precious human life? Not if you hold Kantian views! You couldn’t universalise the maxim upon which you would act; and, lying would be the epitome of not showing respect for another person’s autonomy – even if he/she is an intending murder, he/she has the freedom to make his/her own decisions about how to live his/her life. Kant himself has defended the Kantian position on lying for this sort of circumstance (Rachels Rachels, 2007). The inflexibility is entirely justified; we are only tempted to make exceptions to the rule not to lie, in situations where truth-telling seems to have bad consequences and lying good ones; and predicting consequences is such an imprecise science! Kantianism avoids such second-guessing altogether. Consequences are immaterial. You simply avoid the confirmable evil – lying; tell the truth and let the consequences come as they may. Even if the murderer finds and kills the victim as a result, it’s not your fault, you have done your duty! I do perceive some ‘comfort’ in this stance – one right action – but perhaps that is just because I am hopeless at making difficult decisions and weighing up consequences! Besides, I don’t think such a responsibility should (or could) be evaded so callously. Kant’s logic does seem flawed – we are be morally responsible for the bad consequences of that undisputable evil lying, but we escape similar responsibility for the bad consequences of telling the truth? Perhaps this defence is not so convincing. Some respond to the criticism of Kantianism’s absolute, inviolable rules by suggesting there is the option of making the maxims on which we act more sophisticated. For instance, given the above example, instead of ‘I will always tell the truth’ or, ‘I will never lie’ what about ‘I will tell the truth to those seeking information for honest purposes’. The problem with this, is; which circumstances permit such qualifications being made, and which do not? Would misuse of means to ‘create maxims to suit’ result in making a nonsense of universalisation? If so, and there is no room in Kantian ethics for bending rules, some suggest modifying Kantianism to discriminate between ‘prima facie’ and ‘actual’ duties (Chryssides Kaler, 1993). The actual duties take precedence over those prima facie (at first appearance), so, if there is conflict, the most important duty is that actually acted on; we are morally absolved of the other. For the intended murder situation for instance, the duty not to lie could be overruled by the duty to put a stop to criminal activity? Both ‘modifications’ seem attempts to defend the undesirable effects of acting on principle alone. Kantianism is about acting on principle; perhaps it simply cannot be defended. Conclusion Reasoning – rational respect/all the consequences References Beauchamp, T. L. , Bowie, N. E. Arnold, D. G. (Eds). (2008) Ethical theory and business (8th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Chryssides, G. D. , Kaler, J. H. (1993). An introduction to business ethics. London, England: Chapman and Hall. Rachels, J. , Rachels, S. (2007). The elements of moral philosophy (5th ed. ). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand. (2009). Modules 1 and 2. In 71203 Business Ethics. Lower Hutt, New Zealand: Author. [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic] ———————– [1] That is, the normative (prescriptive) study of ethics; as distinguished from the descriptive approach of the social scientists and/or the conceptual study of significant ethical terms such as right, obligation, justice and so on. (Beauchamp Bowie, 2008) [2] One of the most fundamental questions in life! (V Scholes, personal communication, 4 March 2009). Philosophers have been debating this since 6th century BCE (pre-Socrates)†¦ they still are. [3] [Gk deon=duty} deontological theories base morality on foundational principles of duty/obligation [4] [Gk telos=end} teleological theories base morality on end results (consequences) [5] One of the most influential exponents of this theory. (The Open Poly, 2009). [6] Their usefulness (or lack of it) in terms of ‘standard’ utility as defined by Greatest Happiness Principle. [7] Imperative – it demands; categorical – commands are binding and absolute (The Open Poly, 2009). [8] It’s an argument! The premise is relevant and internally consistent (The Open Poly, 2009) but I would challenge its veracity and argue it is highly dependent on the nature of the ‘business’ and the ‘local community’ in question. A Wairarapa brothel adopted this philosophy†¦ heightened profile? Yes. Improved image – ‘helped’ profits as a result? Neither! It was driven out of town! [9] Businesses? We hold individual’s morally accountable. Businesses are not individuals. We cannot hold businesses morally accountable. To which Goodpaster Matthews (as cited in Chryssides Kaler 1993, p. 269) on ‘moral projection’ reply â€Å"†¦ n certain respects concepts and functions normally attributed to persons can be attributed to organisations made up of persons†¦ society finds the idea both intelligible and useful†¦ † I ‘morally project’ individual moral responsibility onto the ‘businesses’ in thi s claim. [10] On his ‘social responsibility of business’ Chryssides Kaler (1993, p. 231) opine â€Å"†¦ Friedman is not saying businesses must never seek to do good, they may do so provided they do it to serve the goal of profit maximisation†¦ † [11] The assumption is made that act utilitarianism is representative the main position of utilitarianism. How to cite Business Ethics Essay, Essays Business Ethics Essay Free Essays Robert Gertsen Prof. Orkin Business Ethics Essay At first glance, it seems to be clear that this is in essence, an unethical issue that is occurring. According to Brigham Young University’s Exchange Magazine’s categories of ethical dilemmas, stating something that is not true constitutes an unethical action. We will write a custom essay sample on Business Ethics Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The customer’s lawyer attempt to strike a deal in which you state in a court of law that no sign was placed in place would be a false statement. However, before delving into any assumptions, it is imperative to explore various aspects of the dilemmas surrounding this problem. According to Jennings’ steps for analyzing ethical dilemmas, you must observe from the perspective of each person involved in the case and the effect that this has on them. As the manager of the supermarket, it would be morally correct to refuse the lawyer’s request for deal and proceed with a normal litigation. However, from the manager’s perspective, it would extremely negative for his career if his company ended up being sued for money by the plaintiff. He would most likely lose his job and as a result, his financial situation would be in ruin. If he had a family, they would be affected as well. There is a conflict of interest. The manager must also consider the effects of his actions on other parties. Also, other parties would be negatively affected. If the supermarket were sued, the financial loss would affect employees, shareholders, and owners of the company, all of whom have personal responsibilities and family as well. And from the lawyer’s point of view, her client has no insurance, has large medical bills and cannot work. The only way to possibly win any sum of money would be to sue just for medical costs, which the insurance company would cover. Is it ethical to proceed with this even though the client is in such a dire situation? If the lawyer doesn’t proceed with the plan, her client will be unable to work, and will also run into huge financial problems. An employee at the supermarket you manage mopped one of the aisles in the store and placed signs at the ends of the aisle to warn people not to use the aisle until the floor dried. One customer walked around the sign, slipped, fell, and suffered serious injuries. Her lawyer comes to you with the following story. She says that she is going to sue the store for the negligence that led to the customer’s injuries. However, she says that she doubts that she can win, since case law in the state makes it clear that the sign is considered a reasonable warning so that contributory negligence by the customer would eliminate the liability of the store. This means that the customer will get nothing, but one can never be completely sure. The worst part is that the customer has no insurance, has incurred large hospital bills, cannot work for several months, and has no source of support. The lawyer makes the following deal. She will forgo any fee for the case and will sue only for an amount equal to the medical costs incurred and the wages lost, if you will agree to testify that there was no sign in place to warn that the floor was wet. The payment will be made by the insurance company. This will not affect your position with the insurance company, and you will save attorney’s fees. Should you make such a deal? What if you knew that the law in most states would provide an award because their laws hold that warning signs are insufficient and a complete physical barrier has to be in place? Discuss the ethical issues. How to cite Business Ethics Essay, Essays

Lifestyle Sustainability and the Environment Essay Example For Students

Lifestyle Sustainability and the Environment Essay Table of Contents Introduction 3 The Issue 3 Why It Is Important 6 Parties Involved 8 Recommendations and Solutions 9 Conclusion 11 Lifestyle Sustainability Handout 12 References 13 Lifestyle Sustainability In a perfect ecosystem everything gives and takes equally, and the cycle of life is sustained perpetually. Our current lifestyle is not environmentally sustainable. We consume more and more of the earths resources and give very little, if any, in return. The Brundtland Commission defines lifestyle sustainability as being development that seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future. Many factors are contributing to how humankind uses the earths resources and how humankind views the goal of sustainability. Public opinion, government intervention, and manufacturers seem to have the largest influence in determining how the earths resources are used. In order to create a sustainable society, all of these factors must work in conjunction with one another in the utilization of technology and resources to insure that the same resources will be available to future generations. The Issue Mankind has always sought to control its environment. While most species must deal with the world as it is, man has the ability and the desire to change and adapt the environment to suit its needs. If its too hot, then a way must be found to be cool. If there isnt enough shelter, it must be built. If there isnt enough food, it is produced. If there are other creatures that are regarded as pests, they are eliminated. Many of the efforts to control these environmental factors are made at the expense of destroying the biosphere upon which mankind depends. Every person on earth puts a strain on the biosphere and the earths population is increasing exponentially. Scientists predict that by the year 2050 mankind will top 10 Billion people. Vital Resources are stressed by the dual demands of increasing population and increasing consumption per person. Around the world we see groundwater supplies being depleted, agricultural soils being degraded, oceans being over-fished, oil reserves being drawn down, and forests being cut faster than they can re-grow, (Nebel and Wright, 2000, p. 6). The largest percentage of the worlds population lives in developing countries. These developing countries oftentimes have not established environmental controls in their manufacturing and farming techniques. For example, the use of DDT, long since banned for use in the United States, still sees widespread use in many developing Nations. The use of DDT is dangerous not only to insects, but also to the entire food chain, of which man is unavoidably a part. This is not to say that developed countries are not polluting. In fact, many times it is the developed countries that are exploiting the environment intentionally for personal or commercial gain. The U.S., for example, is the worlds number one producer of garbage and industrial waste. The 6% of the worlds population living in the U. S. uses an estimated 25 to 50% of the worlds nonrenewable resources and produces about 15 to 40% of the worlds waste. (Sustainable America, 1996:143) Despite the fact that most countries do have constraints and limits set for pollution, they are still a long way from being environmentally friendly. Pollution comes in many forms: air, water, and land. Air and water resources can and should be considered global resources. The misuse of these is not localized due to the fluid nature of air and water which are constantly circulating and affecting not only the producer of the pollution, but also its global neighbors. Charts And Graph Essay While creating these pollutants, many times there is also a negative impact on sustainability in that there is a consumption of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels. The current trend of urban sprawl is causing the earths resources to be used at an unsustainable rate while also contributing to pollution. Urban sprawl is the rapid expansion of metropolitan areas through building housing developments and shopping centers farther and farther from urban centers and lacing them together with more and more major highways. Widespread development that has occurred without any overall land-use plan. (Nebel and Wright, 2000, p. 648). Given that urbanization causes a loss .

Alcoholism Is A Wide-ranging And Complex Disease That Heavily Plagues

Alcoholism is a wide-ranging and complex disease that heavily plagues society. Drinking is defined as the consumption of a liquid, and/or the act of drinking alcoholic beverages especially to excess. Every year alcohol is responsible for 1/2 of all murders, accidental deaths, and suicides; 1/3 of all drowning, boating, and aviation deaths; 1/2 of all crimes; and almost 1/2 of all fatal automobile accidents (Overview 1). Alcohol is a potent nonprescription drug sold to anyone over the national legal drinking age, 21. Unlike carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can be manufactured by the body, alcohol is a substance that is not made within the body. It is a food, because it supplies a concentrated number of calories, but is not nourishing and does not supply a significant amount of needed nutrients, vitamins, or minerals. These are empty calories that result in an unattractive "beer belly." Most foods are prepared for digestion by the stomach so that their nutrients can be absorbed by the large intestine. However, 95% of alcohol is absorbed directly through the stomach walls or the walls of the duodenum (part of the small intestine nearest the stomach)and small intestine (Overview 2). Various factors effect the speed of alcohol's absorption into the body. - Watery drinks such as beer is absorbed more slowly. - Foods (especially fatty foods) delay absorption - Carbonated beverages speed up the emptying of the stomach into the small intestine where alcohol is absorbed more quickly. - The drinker's physical and emotional state (fatigue, stress), and individual body chemistry affect absorption. - Gender: Women have less dehydrogenates (a chemical that breaks down alcohol in the stomach, so more alcohol is absorbed in the bloodstream. Within moments of ingestion, alcohol moves from the blood stream into every part of the body that contains water, including major organs like the brain, lungs, kidneys, and heart. Alcohol stimulates and agitates, depresses and sedates, produces calmness and tranquility, and begins a hypnotic state of drowsiness and sleep. Alcohol impairs your judgement, and strongly affects motor skills, muscle function, reaction time, eyesight, depth perception, and night vision. As a drinker continues to drink, alcohol depresses lung and heart function, slowing breathing and circulation. Death can occur if alcohol completely paralyzes breathing. However, this state is seldom reached because the body rejects alcohol by vomiting. Acute alcohol overdose leading to death occurs in colleges where individuals are encouraged to drink large amounts of alcohol rapidly. Relatively speaking, the twelve million U.S. College students drink over 430 million gallons of alcohol a year- that is 3,500 Olympic sized swimming pools filled with alcohol. Binge drinking is the number one public health hazard for more than six million college students in America (MADD 2). Only five percent of alcohol is eliminated from the body through the breath, urine, or sweat; the rest is broken down in the liver. In the Liver: -Alcohol is broken down in steps by enzymes until only carbon dioxide remain as by-products. -Alcohol is processed at the rate of three tenths of an ounce of pure ethanol per hour (less than one ounce of whiskey) and unprocessed alcohol circulates in the body. (The alcohol from two cocktails, each about 1.5 ounces, drank before dinner is still present in the body three to four hours later) (Overview 2). The liver's fixed rate of alcohol breakdown means that drinking coffee or taking a cold shower does not speed the sobering process. Therefore, giving coffee to a person who is drunk may make a wide-awake drunk, who thinks he/she is sober enough to drive a car. Occasional users of alcohol, who are healthy, do not appear to suffer negative affects from use of alcohol. In moderate doses, alcohol has beneficial effects: relaxation, appetite stimulation. However, consumed in large amounts, alcohol is a toxin. The short-term result of the toxin is a hangover. A hangover has a combination of physical symptoms: -Headache: Blood vessels in the head, dilated by alcohol, painfully stretch as they return to their normal state. -Upset stomach: Alcohol irritates gastric lining. -Dehydration: Alcohol stimulates the kidneys to process and pass more water than is ingested. A hangover is a withdrawal state. The best hangover cure is aspirin, liquids, sleep, and time. Bland foods, especially liquids, may also help. The best prevention for hangover is moderation or abstinence from alcohol at

Biography of Andrew Jackson Essays

Biography of Andrew Jackson Essays Biography of Andrew Jackson Essay Biography of Andrew Jackson Essay From his early childhood to his yearss in presidential term. Andrew Jackson’s fueled a revolution in political relations and the hunt for exoneration of the American people. In this psychoanalytical life of Andrew Jackson. James C. Curtis explores Jackson’s retentive personality and womb-to-tomb pursuit for power. which was profoundly rooted in his troubled yesteryear. Get downing in the back countries of the Carolina’s. immature Andrew Jackson was born to a twosome from Northern Ireland that migrated here during a clip of societal and economic convulsion. Arriving in the late 1760’s. Jackson explored the prospective peal countryside with the uncontrolled freedom that encouraged his wild behaviour. By the age of 14. Jackson had lost his brothers and both parents. go forthing a immature troubled male child to fend for himself in the turbulent South. Obviously. Jackson’s rebellious attitude brought him nowhere in school. The local headmaster barley taught him to read or compose. but he expressed himself straight. Even into his presidential term his advisers had to revise his public Hagiographas due to his horrid grammar and spelling. Throughout the beginning of the book. Curtis extensively relates Andrew’s early brushs to his future motives in personal and political idea. Andrew’s interruption came at the age of 17 when he landed a occupation with a attorney to pattern jurisprudence. Soon Andrew had a legitimate opportunity in frontier diplomatic negotiations. In 1784 he was involved in the Spanish Conspiracy. In this struggle the settlers were looking for a bold. reactionist individual to stand for them. Andrew took to this and forcefully went after the Indians. Obviously. his heedlessness toward the Indians was rooted in his ain battles with authorization as a kid. They were double evil. reminding him of a yesteryear he was seeking to bury and endangering a hereafter he was seeking to accomplish. The Indian was a fit mark for wrath. ( 23 ) Curtis’ manner emphasizes that Jackson was associating the unconstrained conditions of the frontier to his ain unconstrained behaviours. As a consequence. Jackson wanted to stamp down this feeling and took out his cholers on the Indians. Finally in 1796. Jackson’s political captain. William Blount. selected the immature justice advocator of the Davidson County Militia. After two old ages he replaced Blount’s place in the senate. Senator Jackson sat in office for about a twelvemonth before he realized that his cheeky public speech production accomplishments and high pique could non contend with the polemical persuasion the other Senators possessed. Once once more Jackson returned to the profitable judicature that the Blount government offered. He served giving six old ages of petroleum but just justness as a outstanding justice. In 1806. Jackson one time once more revealed his reckless and unprompted behaviour when he challenged a fellow opposition to a affaire dhonneur. Jackson exercised his daring after leting the sharpshooter take the first shooting. Wounded. he instantly raised his gun and killed the other adult male. Curtis showed that this degree of courage would be his greatest alibi in future brushs. With the return of peace in 1815 allowed for more productive usage of transit. Consequently. the Market Revolution was born. every bit good as a clip for political alteration. The old governments were being taken over by new 1s that represented a different coevals of Americans. The bulk favored Americans that were born and raised in the visible radiation of the Revolution. Andrew Jackson was and acted like that sort of individual. His unstable yesteryear caught the esteem of the working category every bit good as the slave proprietors. but the old political parties saw Jackson as a frenetic militiaman. He disappointed those whose heads were prepared to see me with a Tomahawk in one manus and a scalping knife in the other. ( 82 ) These reactions concerned Jackson and inspired him to seek a different class of action. Curtis showed. the campaigner urgently wanted such exoneration. ( 82 ) From 1828 to 1836 Jackson served the presidential term with the same motive that got him at that place. Tragedy struck once more with the decease of his married woman. a serious unwellness. and the Eaton personal businesss. In 1831 allegations from the Bankss were teeming Jackson. The force per unit area of presidential term was taking its toll. The battle with the Indians was demoing advancement. but the South was deteriorating. Jackson shortly elected a new cabinet that contained Federalists and Bank members. He even went to the extent in ending his disposal. Subsequently in his retirement. he claimed. It was the autonomous people that†¦ . enabled me to end my disposal so satisfactorily. ( 179 ) This partizan split showed Jackson’s trust in the people. Therefore. his exoneration was cured by the indorsement of the American citizen. For most he showed that the hapless and unfortunate persons could lift to the top. but he didn’t recognize the human costs of economic enlargement. During this clip period Curtis presents Jackson as a resilient and self-promoting person. However. there were merely as of import issues that should hold been addressed besides the Market Revolution. issues with province Bankss. and Jackson carry throughing his demand to unclutter his name from unfavorable judgment. For case. minorities. chiefly inkinesss. didn’t have the slightest opportunity in lifting to the point to do societal alteration. The slaves were used as economic fuel to light the Market Revolution. I think this book did address Andrew Jackson as a mastermind in advancing alteration. but lacked in advancing his moral character and I would non urge it. It seemed to me. Curtis represented him as an American hero more than a dynamic political figure. Andrew Jackson was the consequence of the troubled lives Americans lived during the Revolutionary period. The emotions of those people were the accelerator in Andrew Jackson’s hunt for exoneration.

National health care policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

National health care policy - Essay Example As such, the White Paper, Our health, our care, our say: A new direction for community service (Department of Health, 2006a) aims to put in place the structure required to achieve these goals. Importantly, this particular health policy identifies and explains a comprehensive and integrated framework to adapt community health and social care services to the UK community of the 21st century (Thomas, 2005). Ultimately, the document seeks to support a patient-centred approach and in doing so increase the standards of quality service across the national health system. The integration of health delivery services will enable the diverse range of care organisations to provide convenient, comfortable and high-value care that will meet the communities immediate, and long-term needs. This paper aims to critically review the social health care policy of Our health, our care, our say in regards to the contribution of nursing. Firstly, the White Paper shall be more fully described. Secondly, the political, financial and social drives behind this policy shall be identified. Thirdly, the concept of clinical governance shall be explained. Next, the tensions between health care providers and the users of these services briefly outlined. The roles and skills required of nurses within the integrated NHS will then be established. And the roles of other multi-disciplines and agencies shall be provided. Finally, a conclusion shall reiterate the main arguments and show the vital need for nurses to support the implementation of this White Paper.Our health, our care, our say: A new direction for community service The White Paper, Our health, our care, our say, is part of the NHS plan to create a world-class health and social-care system (Department of Health, 2006a). This document is just one element of the present Government's long-term and nation-wide reform programme to provide services that place the patient at the centre of the healing process, rather than the traditional model that has required the patient to fit with the services available. The framework provisions the patient and other end-users of health care services, with more control. Also, the policy makes services more responsive to the needs of the community, especially people who require more complex care plans, as well as to enable services to be accessed at amore local level, by way of integrating the diverse service providers available. An example of some of the services within the community that will be integrated include: home-care and other health visitors, GPs and family planning centres, day and short-break centres, m ental health agencies, family planning and pharmacies, meals on wheels and social workers, general and community hospitals, PCTs and local council authorities. Overall, the changes enable better value for public money, as a procedure that occurs in primary care can be up to one-third of the cost of secondary care.The legislation sets new standards for an integrated delivery of health and social care services to the community (Department of Health, 2006b). The NHS has determined that integration is a critical way to reduce the waste of resources whilst providing a standardized approach to service delivery across the nation. In July, 2002, it was determined that funding for health and social care resources would be pooled to encourage the diverse range of service providers to establish partnerships

Question about the History of Islam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Question about the History of Islam - Assignment Example Unlike the men who dress in any type of cloth, the women must always cover themselves in lengthy hijabs complete with a veil that covers both their faces and hair (Ruggles 77). The unique attire portrays the society’s archaic treatment of women who must always behave differently when in public space and when in their private spaces. The history of Islam and early Islamic society shows a unique position and roles of women, especially in marriages. At such times, marriages were alliances. The men, therefore, married their female children to specific families with the view of creating relations and alliances with the appropriate families. Prophet Mohammad had thirteen wives a feature that portrays his belief and resects of women. The men in Islamic societies believed that a man could take care of as many women as they wished. As such, the polygamous society encouraged men to marry as many women as they wished. This portrays a situation where women did not influence the structure of their families since just as stated earlier, men served as guardians to the women. Furthermore, all of Muhammad’s marriages had political connotations. They served as alliances that influenced his position in the society and in the faith. According to the Sharia laws, virginity was a phenomenal issue in the society since it represented honor to both the girl’s family and society (Haylamaz and Hülya 121). As such, families raised their female children strictly with the view to guarding their virginity. Another equally important feature of Muhammad’s polygamous marriages was the fact that she married widows as well. A number of his wives were widows. Such was a strategic undertaking that sought to influence the position of widows in a society that valued virginity of women.  

MACRO AND MICRO ECONOMICS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MACRO AND MICRO ECONOMICS - Research Paper Example Advantages of Command Economy 1. Facilitates the realization of an economy’s long term goals and objectives hence rapid development Central to the command economy is â€Å"a central planning authority† (Fernando 2011, p.115). In this kind of economy, the state establishes development goals and targets, which the planning authority plans, executes, supervises, and evaluates. The authority establishes targets and administers control aimed at realization of the overall development and economic growth objectives. The objectives usually include stability of prices, faster economic growth, and reduction of inequalities of income to avoid market failure. 2. Reduction of income and wealth inequality Command economy ensures equitable wealth distribution, which cushions any market failure in the economy. The health and education standards are also relatively higher in a command economy (â€Å"Guiding development† n.d.). For instance, in 1980s China and India had similar pe r capita incomes but China had higher primary education levels and life expectancy (â€Å"Guiding development† n.d.). Disadvantages of Command Economy 1). Misplaced Incentives- The producer’s and investors are discouraged since their efforts do not pay off well as they should. In planned economy, the state often rewards the hardworking people only with fame and honors rather than the kind of incentives any investor looks for which is profits. The planned economy focuses on equitable wealth distribution which and therefore the workers and producers are less motivated to put efforts in what they do. 2). Failure of co-ordination- Planned economies try to co-ordinate the entire economic decisions regarding production, investments, consumption, and trade made by producers and consumers. The efficiency of such regulations lacks particularly where mismatch occurs between the supply of products and the demand by consumers. Bottlenecks in production lead to a shortage of some g oods. This happens since planners may not necessarily know most essential needs to consumers at every point in time. A good example of the failure in co-ordination is what happened to Soviet Union in the late 1980s- there was a shortage in food storage and transportation while the supply of TV sets was ample (Lipsey & Chrystal 2007, p.3). 3). Slow decision making and wastes of resources- Command economy often needs many planners to run the control system which leads to slow decision making. This single control authority is charged with decisions about allocation of production means among different sectors, branches, and uses as well as the distribution of all goods. Slow decision and action about perishable goods often results in wastes. 4). Less dynamic technology economy- Few incentives to innovate leads to limited innovations. Planned economies remain behind in most of their technology with the exception of military and rocket science. This was seen in Soviet Union, which was usi ng the West’s 1930s technology in 1950s and in China which later borrowed the outdated technology from Soviet Union 5) Political repression- Governments in planned economy own the means of control and dictation of economic production and therefore civil liberties cannot be enjoyed. Conclusion The command economy has very many disadvantages and just a few advantages. Command economy is infamous and has been observed to be unstable in countries like the former Soviet Union and China where it was practiced. Trade between nations Introduction Trade between nations has the benefits for all participating countries. To some extent, all countries rely

Friendliness and perception of social support

Friendliness and perception of social support Generally, this study investigate whether local student perceived more social support as compared to out-of-state student and to examine the relationship between friendliness and social support. A total of 120 participants aged between 17 to 24 years was surveyed. The participants are local college student (n=30 males and n=30 females) and out-of-state college student (n=30 males and n=30 females) from the Sunway University College. The instrument used to gather the data are Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet et al., 1988) and Friendliness-Unfriendliness Scale (SACRAL) (Reisman Billingham, 1989). It is found that local student received more social support as compared to out-of-state student. Moreover, a very significant positive relationship was also found between friendliness and total perceived social support. Students these days face difficulty in college or even university as it is hard for them to adapt to new environment, subjects and also friends, hence it will be difficult especially for the international student to adjust themselves in another country due to so many factor that can affect their level of stress as compared to the local students (Mista, Crist Burant, 2003). However, researchers (e.g. Cohen Wills, 1985; Baron and Kenny, 1986), noted that social support helps to buffer stress. As defined by Lahey (2007, p.510), social support is a form of support given by any family members and friends given that they advise or lend a hand to an individual whom needs reveal their personal feeling. Cohen (1982) categorizes social network, perceived social support and supportive behavior under social support, where the three categories are inter-related such that perceived social support is defined as perceived social support refers to the function of social relationship as the perception that social relationship will (if necessary) provide resources such as emotional support or information and supportive behaviours refer to the mobilization and receipt of behaviors intended to aid persons in the face of stressful events (p.109). In addition, Demaray and Malecki (2002) defined perceived social support as a type of general support or specific supportive behaviors from any of their friends, family or relatives given that they may help to buffer the unpleasant feeling or emotio n of an individual. Researchers for this study, defined local student as student who are brought up by their parents or guardian and live in the state of Selangor and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia whereas, out-of-state student is to be define as the student who are brought up in other states in Malaysia (excluding Selangor and Kuala Lumpur) or student who are from other country also known as international student but studying in Malaysia. As for friendliness, it is defined by Reisman (1983) saying that friendliness is a construct or dispositional tendency or attitude that implies kindliness, cordiality, and goodwill (p. 405). Reisman also added that friendliness is also a belief or feelings that people have about themselves, as well as to overt behaviors, such as smiling, greeting, and cooperating(p. 406). Past research, Misra, Crist and Burant (2003), found that International students whom are studying in American universities faces more problem such as adjusting and getting use to a new environment. The international student feel stressed up and uncomfortable for example, they have to adapt new culture and even new subject. At the same time, they also have workload that needs to be complete within a time period therefore this also causes stress. Therefore a study was carried out with a total sample of 143 participants whom are students from Africa, Asia, Middle East and America and it was found that social support do help buffer stress. Social support can act as a buffer for in many aspects. According to Demaray and Malecki (2002) social support is said to become an important role in students life because it is found that students with low perceived support obtained significantly higher scores on problematic behavior (p. 238). It is also noted by Rodriguez et al. (2003), that a person can be influence strongly by anyone that is not a family member of that person as it has been verify by research. However, it is proven that individual with social support will be able to deal with their unpleasant situation better than those individual who do not have social support (Rodrigeuz et al., 2003). In addition, social support is also important to buffer stress for college student (Cohen Wills, 1985) Nonetheless, opposing opinion was stated in Taylor et al. (2004) that it is more beneficial for social support which are not make use of rather than social support that are being utilized due to the result found by Wethington and Kessler (as cited in Taylor et al., 2004) that perceived social support was a stronger predictor of adjustment to stressful life events than received support (p. 355). Another result was found by Boron and Kenny (1986), indicating that the level of stress is affecting an individual social support that is received. At the same time, friendliness is also related to well being (Gill, 2008) when a place have more friendly people a children well being can be improve and through that the children will receive more social support. In addition, friendly people will gain more support as seen in Sullivan (1999), shows that friendly student will be able to blend in a group and help each other and provide support. Besides, Berndt and Perry (1986) also found that friendship helps when an individual is in a stressful situation and social support from friends is gain. This present study will look into which group of student: local student and out-of-state student will receive more social support and also to study from who the social support is receive from: family; friends; significant other. According to Eker, Arkar and Yaldiz (2000) the term significant other is defined as somebody outside ones family and friends (e.g. fiancà © (e), boy/girlfriend, relative, neighbor, doctor). Simultaneously, friendliness will also be analyze with social support to examine whether is there a significant relationship between friendliness and social support. Hypothesis The first hypothesis for this study is local student receive more social support as compared to out-of-state student. The second hypothesis for the study is there is a positive relationship between friendliness and social support. Method Study Design Survey design consists of two types of method which are questionnaire and interview. However questionnaire was picked to conduct the survey instead of interview because the research involves a large number of participants. The questionnaire consists of two types of scale; Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet et al., 1988) and Friendliness Unfriendliness Scale (SACRAL) (Resiman Billingham, 1989). For the first hypothesis, the dependent variable is perceived social support and the independent variable is the type of student; local student or out-of-state student. Whereas for the second hypothesis, the dependent variable is friendliness and the independent variable is social support. Participants A total number of one hundred and twenty students from the Sunway University College were surveyed (refer to Table 1). The participants comprised of 60 males and 60 females. For each gender, 30 students are local student and another 30 are out-of-state student. The students surveyed are 17 years old to 24 years old (M=19.39, SD=1.34) (not shown in table). Most of the participants are Chinese with a total percentage of 62.5% whereas 10.8% are Malay, 7.5% are Indian and 19.2% are others. However, the highest percentage for the religion is Buddhist with a percentage of 45.0%. Whereas the percentages for each of remaining religion of the participants are 14.2% Muslim, 26.7% Christian, 5% Hindu and the remaining 5% are others. The highest educational level achieved by most of the students is secondary school and diploma or equivalent with a percentage of 25.8% and 45%, whereas 28.3% had achieved a bachelor degree or equivalent and only 0.8% had achieved a postgraduate degree (master/docto ral level). Students were selected to be the participant for this survey because the research is studying about local students and out-of-state students therefore out-of-state students comprise of international student or student from other states in Malaysia besides Selangor and Kuala Lumpur and the local student are those who are raised up in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. Table 1 Demographics Demographics Number Valid percent Gender Male Female 60 60 50.0 50.0 Hometown Local Out-of-state 60 60 50.0 50.0 Race Malay Chinese Indian Others 13 75 9 23 10.8 62.5 7.5 19.2 Religion Muslim Buddhist Hindu Christian Others 17 59 6 32 6 14.2 49.2 5.0 26.7 5.0 Highest level of education achieved Secondary School Diploma or equivalent Bachelor degree or equivalent Postgraduate degree (Master/doctoral level) 31 54 34 1 25.8 45.0 28.3 0.8 Note. Percent are calculated using SPSS. Measurement The measurements used to measure perceived social support in this study is Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) which was design by Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet and Farley in 1988 where scores are obtained from a 7-point Likert scale beginning with 1 for disagree very strongly to 7 for agree very strongly . This scale contain 12-item that measures three types of perceive social support from family, friends and significant other. For family, it has four item that are item 3, 4, 8 and 11, whereas friends has seven items which are item 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 12 and for significant other, it has 4 items but three item are the same item for friends which are item 1, 2, 5 and 10. Every item is summed up by itself and each total are then divided among the number of items it consist. Lastly, the score obtain will show the level of perceived social support, thus a higher score obtained shows that more perceived social support gain. Zimet et al. noted that MSPSS has good test-retes t reliability and known to have an outstanding scale due to its constant alphas (0.91) overall and the subscales tend to have alpha ranging from 0.90 to 0.95. Since it has a achieve a good reliability therefore, the validity for construct validity is at the same level as the reliability, whereas both factorial and concurrent validity is also excellent when it is associate with depression and with degree of coronary artery disease in type A patients (inverse correlation). The second type of measurement used is Friendliness Unfriendliness Scale (SACRAL) (Reisman Billingham, 1989). SACRAL is used because it measures friendliness as related to self-concept, accessibility, rewardingness, and alternation and also unfriendliness. As for this scale, it is made up of 20-item instrument out of 40-item since friendliness is rather complicated to be measure since it associate with one particular person skills and beliefs and it is able to distinguish between high-SACRAL and low-SACRAL through the sum of the scores. It is divided into four different subscales that comprise of self-concept, S (item 1, 5, 9, 13, 17), accessibility, AC (items 2, 6, 10, 14, 18), rewarding, R (items 3, 7, 11, 15, 19), and alienation, AL (items 4, 8, 12, 16, 20). To obtain the friendliness scores, all four subscale item are added up together. Moreover, item 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, and 19 has to be score differently because they are in positive direction, so if 0 and 1 are rated, i t will be 0. Whereas for the other item, reverse scoring will be done, so if 3 and 4 are rated, it will be recoded as 0 instead. Reisman (1983) noted that, the reliability of SACRAL may obscure in information and the prudence of maintaining subscale scores is supported after being tested with coefficient alpha. However, the study done by Reisman for concurrent validity, shows that there is an agreement of 81% concerning the friends in the direction of endorsement of the items, which is to say that on about 8out of 10items one friend correctly indicated whether the other agreed or disagreed. According to Reisman and Billingham for the construct validity, 94% agreement rate between subjects SACRAL scores and the assessment of raters of subject responses in a laboratory setting. Procedure This study is assign as a group research and 120 questionnaires were divided among six of the group member. Each and every member approaches approximately 20 students in Sunway University College. Convenience sampling a type of non-random sampling (Mcburney White, 2007, pp. 257) is used because the participant needed are students therefore it is easy and simple for the data to be collected since we are studying in a college where we can approach to the participant easily and it also not time consuming. Besides, the student approached were generally in the college cafeteria, foyer and the library, which mean the students are having their breaks, so they will have time to answer the questionnaire. First of all, a consent form is given to each of the participant to allow them understand about the research conducting by our group, to know roughly how long will it take up their time to answer the questionnaire and to inform them that their personal information will be kept private and confidential then it come along with a set of questionnaire that consist of 12 social support item and 20 item that measures friendliness. A demographic form is enclose together with the questionnaire that contain personal information like age, gender, ethnicity, education level achieved, religion and hometown. After filling up, the questionnaires are collected from the participant to be analyzed. Result The aim of the t-test analysis is to help measure whether local student perceived more social support or vice versa. T-test is used because it analyzes on one categorical variable and one continuous variable plus t-test is also used because the independent variable for the first hypothesis is a two level independent variable. In addition, it also determines whether there is a statistically significant difference for both the variable (Pallant, 2007, p. 232). As for the Correlation analysis, it will determine whether there is a positive or negative relationship between the two variables and its strength (Pallant, 2007, p. 126). Hence, this fits for the second hypothesis since the research is to find out about the relationship between friendliness and social support. Using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) data analysis program to test on both t-test and correlation coefficient for the two hypotheses, the results obtain are shown in Table 1 and Table 2. From the t-test analysis (refer to Table 2), the result shows the total amount of perceived social support received by both local student (M = 5.46, SD = 0.96) and the out-of-state student (M = 4.94, SD = 1.06). The result achieve is significant as hometown affects the total social support received by the local student and out-of-state student, t (118) = 2.81, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01. The only variable that was found no significant difference is the social support from family. Hence, hometown do not significantly affect students social support from family, where the mean of local student vs. out-of-state student is 5.45 vs. 5.12, t (118) = 1.50, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0.05. However, significant difference was found between local student and out-of-state student (M = 5.44, SD = 1.05 and M = 4.85, SD = 1.09) for social support from friend. This shows that hometown significantly affect students social support from friend, t (118) = 3.06, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01. Thus, local student receive more social support from friends as compared to out-of-state student. As for social support from significant other, it is found to be significantly different also. It is showed in Table 2 that hometown significantly affect students social support from significant other as the mean obtain for out-of state student (M = 4.92, SD = 1.35) is lower than the mean for the local student (M = 5.42, SD = 1.26) and the t-value is as follow, t (118) = 2.08, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01. Therefore, more social support from significant other is received by local student instead of the out-of-state student. Table 2 Local Student and Out-of-state Student Perceived Social Support from Family, Friend, and Significant Other Variable T df Hometown Out-of-state Social Support from family 1.50 118 5.12 (1.34) Social support from friend 3.06** 118 4.85 (1.09) Social support from significant other 2.08** 118 4.92 (1.35) Total perceived social support 2.81** 118 4.94 (1.06) Note. ** = p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ .01 Deviations appear in parentheses below means. Standard The results for correlation analysis are shown in Table 3. It is observed that there is a very significant relationship between friendliness and total perceived social support at r = .303, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01 and according to Cohen (as cited in Pallant, 2007, p. 132) friendliness and total perceived social support has a moderate positive relationship. This means that the friendlier the students are, the more perceived social support. A coefficient determination is also obtained which is 9.18per cent of variance being shared. Therefore, friendliness affects about 9.2 percent of the variance found in perceived social support. As for friendliness and the subscale of social support from friend and from significant other, it is found that both subscales have a very significant relationship with friendliness (refer to Table 3). Therefore, the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) for friendliness and social support from friends is r = .367, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01 and for friendliness and social support from significant other is r = .338, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0.01, meaning that there is a moderate positive relationship between friendliness and social support from friend and also between friendliness and social support from significant others. Besides, it also tells that the more friendly one is, the more social support is received from friend and significant other. Despite the fact that, there is no significant relationship between friendliness and social support from family at r = .1.26, p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0.05. Table 3 Pearson Correlation of Perceived Social Support and Friendliness Variable Social Support from Family Social Support from Friend Social Support from Significant Other Total Perceived Social Support Friendliness .126 .367** .338** .303** Social Support from Family .544** .557** .801** Social Support from Friend .902** .932** Social Support from Significant Other .896** ** p à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ .01 (2-tailed) Discussion The main purpose of this study is to investigate whether local student receive more social support than out-of-state student. At the same time, the study also examines the relationship between friendliness and social support. The results that have been analyze indicates that the local student receive more social support from friend and significant other as compare to out-of-state student. But the unexpected finding was for the social support from family as it is not significant, this is comparable with Misra, Crist and Burant where they. From the result, assumption such that local student have the advantage to receive more social support because local student can easily adapt to their own country culture whereas it will be slightly more difficult for the student from out-of-state Similar prediction was achieve by Yue and Thao (2007). From the findings, it shows that out-of-state student receive lesser social support from friends and also lesser social support from significant other compare to local student. This result was also obtained by Demaray and Malecki (2002) showing that the Native American student perceived lesser social support while the ethnic student receive higher social support. Hence, the first hypothesis, local student receives more social support as compared to out-of-state student is accepted. The result is accurate because of the reliability and validity of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) used in the survey. The correlation test indicate that there is a very significant positive relationship between friendliness and social support and this means the friendlier one is, the more social support is gain. Similar result can see in Sullivan (1999) research. The benefit of this study is that every subscale is analyzed and a very significant result are attain for both social support from friend and significant other. The reliability and validity of the Friendliness Unfriendliness scale (SACRAL) also contribute to the strength of the study. Thus, the second hypothesis, that there is a significant positive relationship between friendliness and social support is accepted. The limitation of present study is that the data collected is a small sample size only, thus the study is less likely to be accurate since the amount for each local student and out-of-state student and gender are controlled which it will give 30 subject for each hometown and gender. Besides, another limitation is that the number of year out-of-state student have been leaving in Selangor or Kuala Lumpur, where they might have gotten used to the environmental and may be their family live in a nearby state or country, which is now very easy n convenient to travel back n fro. Hence, the student might feel that they have enough social support. Nevertheless, future study is to help find ways to make the study a better one is that collect a larger sample, try collecting data from a wider range and use random assignment instead of convenience sampling. Besides, the number of year the student have been in Malaysia should be place in the demographic form, so that we can tell how long the out-of-state student have been living in Malaysia and that variable can be control. In conclusion, both hypothesis are accepted, as a significant result is obtain and the mean shows that local student receive more social support than out-of-state student. Plus, a very significant positive relationship is found between friendliness and social support. Hence, the more friendly the individual the more social support is gain by the individual. The research should have include the number of year an individual have been living in Malaysia, so that the limitation can be remove and the result achieve will be more accurate.

Essay --

Ethiopia’s current leader, Mulatu Teshome Wirtu, elected as their president since October 7, 2013. Ethiopia’s current government is Federal republic and Parliamentary republic, and their national language is Amharic Language. The Masked Dictator Meles Zenawi, the former leader of Ethiopia, was a very confusing man with a mixed legacy. To the rest of the world, Zenawi seemed like peaceful leader that was pushing Ethiopia forward economically and as a country. He was a man of many faces that had done many things good and many things bad. The bad was hidden by the extreme suppression and total control of outside information and personal expression of the population. Power, money, and total control was the game and the people of Ethiopia were getting played. The threat of physical force and death loomed over the Ethiopian people if they dared to make a move for justice and equality. Zenawi, who died in 2012, was Ethiopia’s dictator and ruled his country by jailing and killing thousands, rigging elections, and spreading government propaganda. Ethiopia’s government controlled everything, whether it was jailing journalists, exiling critics, or abusing human rights. â€Å"Zenawi’s critics were jailed, killed or chased out of the country: in fact, more journalists were exiled from Ethiopia in the last decade than any other country on earth. Let’s restate that: Zenawi kicked out more journalists than any other tyrant on the planet, thereby monopolizing control over information† (Halvorssen, pars. 6). Ethiopia only seemed like a peaceful, progressional place because people out of the country were shielded from the truth. â€Å"Keeping Ethiopia together† had it costs that dictator, Meles Zenawi was fine with taking. It was very ignorant for Bil... ...that may be violated in the process. He created dissonance amongst a people that prior to his rule had a â€Å"long standing unity and nationalism that made Ethiopia unique† (Dula, pars. 4).As he worked with the U.S. to capture terrorists, many thought he was trying to bring justice to his country and around the world but many people did not know that in return, that his government was receiving about a billion dollars a year in American Aid. He gave a rosy picture of his country’s growthh and sucess and charmed Western leaders with his Zenawi would have anyone killed or exiled if he thought they were threatening his reputation or position in office. Meles Zenawi’s death shouldn't be devastating amongst the Ethiopian people in fact it may come as a sigh of relief. However most are likely holding their breath as to the replacement if the legacy of his extremism continues.

A Fledgling’s Masterpeice Essay

Citizen Kane is widely hailed as the â€Å"great American film† and with good reason. From its complex narrative structure to pioneering photography to its incredibly rich use of sound, Welles’ 1941 picture remains one of the most innovative movies ever to come out of a Hollywood studio. Even Today Citizen Kane stands out as one of the great films of all time. Unfolding almost entirely in flashback, Welles’s masterpiece presents various perspectives on the oversized life of the recently deceased Charles Foster Kane. Through the reminiscences of friends, family, and coworkers, the film moves from Kane’s childhood to his rambunctious adolescence, from the heights of his success to the depths of his isolation. All the while there is a search for clues to Kane’s mysterious last word: â€Å"Rosebud.† The puzzling phrase drives the tale, but ultimately it is only a means of exploring the film’s real theme: the impossibility of truly understanding any human being. In the film Kane (Orson Welles, who also directed and co-wrote the screenplay) is separated from his parents as a child and made heir to an enormous fortune. Coming of age, he decides to run a newspaper, sensationalizing the news and considering himself to be the voice of the people. With ambitions beyond publishing, he runs for New York Governor, and later promotes the singing career of his second wife Susan. He also builds Xanadu, an extravagant palace that is never finished. These various ambitions fail, and Kane dies a wealthy but spiritually broken man. When William Randolph Hearst (multimillionaire and media tycoon) got wind of what 25-year-old Orson Welles was creating at RKO’s film studio, he feared his life was the inspiration for the main character. In response Hearst and his newspapers employed all their influence to try and stop Citizen Kane’s 1941 release. John O’Hara of Newsweek addresses just this controversy in his review of Citizen Kane. He begins by stating that Citizen Kane is the finest film that  he has ever seen and that Orson Welles is the greatest actor ever. This is a bold statement to make at the time because it was printed before the film was released and before any kind of public consensus could be made. O’Hara’s observation would turn out to be somewhat true. His reasons for promoting Citizen Kane are no more than pure enthusiasm and support for a film that impressed him greatly. He states that his intension is to make you want to see the picture that he believes to be â€Å"as good a picture as was ever made†. (O’Hara 60) O’Hara seems to be more of an excited fan than a film critic. His unbridled enthusiasm is evident in every sentence of his review. He appears to be an admirer of Orson Welles’ just as much as the movie itself. He states that Citizen Kane lacks nothing. Later in the article, as if to be reassuring, he says that â€Å"aside from what it does lack Citizen Kane has Orson Welles†. He compares Welles to artists like F. Scott Fitzgerald who had gone unrecognized until after his death. He ends his article with the statement that there has never been a better actor than Orson Welles and then repeats that very statement. (O’Hara 60) The controversy surrounding Citizen Kane and W. R. Hearst is also addressed by Bosely Crowther of the New York Times. He says that â€Å"suppression of this film would be a crime†. But unlike O’Hara, Crowther seems a little more critical of the film. He says that Welles’ abundance of imagery is so great that it sometimes gets in the way of his logic. He also claims that the film â€Å"fails to provide a clear picture of the character and motive behind the man whom the whole film revolves†.(Crowther 5) Aside from the few critical points, Crowther was very complimentary towards Citizen Kane. He comments on the excellent direction of Mr. Welles and the sure and penetrating performances of the entire cast.Crother feels that Citizen Kane is one of the most realistic takes on the cinema to date. He describes it as cynical, ironic, oppressive, and realistic. â€Å"Citizen Kane has more vitality than fifteen other films we could name†. (Crowther5) The New Yorker’s John Marsh also is very complimentary of Citizen Kane, but  for much more technical reasons. He addresses the many aspects of the film that set it apart from all others. â€Å"Since movies hitherto have commenced with a cast list and a vast directory of credits, we are promptly jolted out of our seats when Citizen Kane ignores this convention and slides at once into the film.† He believes that this formal difference is revolutionary enough to establish Welles’ independence from convention. â€Å"This independence, like fresh air, sweeps on and on through the movie.†(Marsh 79) Marsh also comments on Welles’ method of storytelling with the use of repetition and flashing scenes. â€Å"With a few breakfast scenes, the progress of a marriage is shown as specifically as if we had read the wife’s diary. To Marsh something new has come to the movie world at last. He believes that the film’s triumphant quality is that although Kane is presented as a villainous miser, the human touch is not lost. Sympathy for the preposterous Mr. Kane survives. All three of these writers share a similar opinion about Citizen Kane. Individually they each appreciate different aspects of the film. John O’Hara is intoxicated with the performance of Orson Welles, both in front and behind the camera. Bosely Crowther discusses the reality of the film itself. John Marsh believes that it’s unconventional approach is what will set Citizen Kane apart from other movies in the future. Although each writer praises different aspects of the movie they all agree that Citizen Kane is a film that will drastically alter the film making processfrom now on.

Political Organization Essay

The band is a relatively small and loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhabits a common territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically and economically independent. Band is a form of anthropological political system noted for its simplicity. According to common anthropological knowledge, a band usually consists of not more than 30-50 individuals. Bands display an egalitarian form of authority which advocates equality among members and the eradication of hindrances to the doctrine of equality. However, bands often exhibit a weak form of leadership due to the non-existent of rules and written laws the support their leaders. Tribes are loosely-structured anthropological political systems composed of families and other communities which are based solely on kinship. Tribes are the most basic and primitive form of political system. In tribal societies, the elders and the heads of the families are often the ones who lead the tribe. They are usually the ones who are sought for advice and guidance. The main difference between a band and a tribe is the size of the community. Tribes are defined as bigger forms of bands. Chiefdom is a form of anthropological political system that is more complex than both the band and the tribe. A chiefdom, according to common anthropological knowledge is composed of a number of villages under the control of one individual called as â€Å"chief. â€Å" Unlike the headman or headwoman in bands and tribes, the leader of a chiefdom is generally a true authority figure, whose right to make final decisions, give commands, and enforce obedience serves to unite members in all affairs and at all times. Anthropologist, however, argued that such form of anthropological political system is very stable. According to experts, this kind of socio-political organization tends to be prone to a cycle of monumental collapse. In anthropology, the state is a political institution established to manage and defend a complex, socially stratified society occupying a defined territory. A state greatly differs from a band, tribe and chiefdom because of its developed nature. Unlike the other three primitive systems, a state is governed by rules and laws which generates from a just law-making body. States are the governing bodies of nations where sovereignty resides. In order to be recognized as a state, an anthropological political system must meet the four requirements of having a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter relations with other states.

How and When to Bring Up Personal Issues When Applying for Jobs

How and When to Bring Up Personal Issues When Applying for Jobs So you’re applying for jobs, but you have some serious needs based on personal considerations: you’re pregnant, or have kids, or require a particular kind of flexibility in order to maintain your work/life balance. Or perhaps you’re moving across the country, or you need to have a position somewhere close to your partner. You name it, you’re probably struggling with finding the right time to bring it up. Here are three stages in the job process and an outline of how and when to bring up personal issues when applying for jobs. Happy hunting!In Your Resume Cover LetterSay the company has boasted about their super-casual work culture and flexible hours. You’re allowed to work at a beanbag and take three-hour lunches as long as you get your projects done. Or they have a fantastic family leave package and you’re planning to have a kid soon. You’re secretly doing a happy dance, but you really shouldn’t show it. At least not yet.Sayin g how important flexibility and leave and casual scheduling might be to you could be interpreted by a hiring manager as a red flag in a cover letter. â€Å"Ahoy! This guy is lazy and doesn’t really want to do the job!† Save it for much later in the process. Or just be glad you found this opportunity and keep the celebration to yourself.During an InterviewThe good news is they’re already interested. The bad is that you could easily blow it by asking about any of the above with too much eagerness or glee. It’s still not the time to say, â€Å"Hang on†¦ how many personal days do I get?† Or: â€Å"So I get how many weeks off for maternity leave?†Stick with convincing them that you’re the most qualified candidate for the position and an asset to the company. Render yourself indispensable and then take advantage of the sweet perks this company can offer. When you get to the point in the interview when you’re invited to ask quest ions, you can casually inquire about the work atmosphere or culture, but that’s about it.During NegotiationYou got the offer! Yes! Now is the time. If you’re, say, pregnant, or moving in a year, or in need of Friday mornings off to watch your kids, this is the ideal stage to broach the subject. There’s no right time, really, and you’ll probably be dreading it. But take a deep breath and say how delighted you are about the offer, then say you just have one small complication you wanted to make sure you addressed up front.If you get to such an advanced stage, however, you should make sure you’ve got the right read on the company. You won’t make any friends by asking for things the company just can’t or won’t provide. Pick your marks and shoot straight and steadily for them.